Ghost Dance Buried- Cultural Significance and Historical Context
What Was the Ghost Dance?
The Ghost Dance was a spiritual movement that swept through Native American tribes in the late 1800s. It wasn't just a dance—it was a desperate response to cultural annihilation.
Tribes across the American West adopted the practice between 1889 and 1893. The central belief was simple: performing the dance would bring back the dead, restore stolen lands, and make white settlers disappear. People were starving, confined to reservations, and watching their way of life erased. They had nothing left except hope—and the Ghost Dance gave them that.
The movement ended in tragedy at Wounded Knee in December 1890, when U.S. soldiers opened fire on Lakota Sioux who were performing the dance. Between 150 and 300 people died. Most were women and children.
The Origins: Wovoka's Vision
The Ghost Dance originated with Wovoka, also known as Jack Wilson. He was a Paiute prophet from Nevada. In 1889, Wovoka claimed to have a vision during a solar eclipse.
In his vision, God appeared and told him the world would be renewed. The dead would return. The earth would be covered with fresh soil and new grass. Indians would reclaim their lands and live in peace. White people would be removed—or simply sink into the earth.
Wovoka wasn't trying to start a war. He preached nonviolence. Do the dance, live right, treat others fairly, and the promise would be fulfilled. He gave people a ritual they could perform while waiting.
Key Elements of the Original Message
- Perform the Ghost Dance during a four-day ceremony
- Live honestly and treat your family well
- Stop fighting, stealing, and drinking alcohol
- Trust that the renewal would come naturally through divine power
Wovoka's message spread fast. It reached tribes hundreds of miles away within months.
How the Ghost Dance Spread
Tribes adapted Wovoka's message to fit their own traditions. The dance transformed as it moved across different communities. Each group incorporated their own songs, movements, and spiritual practices.
Tribes That Participated
- Lakota Sioux — Adopted the movement most intensely; became the center of the Wounded Knee massacre
- Northern Cheyenne — Integrated Ghost Dance with their own Sun Dance ceremonies
- Arapaho — Performed the dance at their own gatherings in Oklahoma
- Shoshone — Combined it with existing prophet-dance traditions
- Crow — Took up the practice briefly before rejecting it
The movement moved faster than any government could track. It spread by word of mouth, through trade networks, and by messengers traveling between tribes.
The Ghost Shirt Belief
The Lakota Sioux developed a specific belief that set them apart from other tribes practicing the Ghost Dance. They believed that wearing special ghost shirts would make them invulnerable to bullets.
This idea emerged from Lakota spiritual traditions. The shirts were decorated with symbols—moons, stars, eagles, thunderbirds. Followers thought these designs held protective power.
U.S. military officials saw the ghost shirts as a direct threat. They interpreted the movement as a prelude to armed rebellion. This fear played a major role in what happened at Wounded Knee.
Government Response and Growing Tensions
Federal authorities watched the Ghost Dance movement with increasing alarm. Indian agents reported that dancers were becoming "hostile" and "uncontrollable."
The reality was different. Wovoka explicitly told followers not to fight. But government officials didn't trust him—or the tribes.
In October 1890, the U.S. War Department ordered troops to the Pine Ridge and Rosebud reservations. Their job was to stop the Ghost Dance by any means necessary.
Government Actions Taken
- Dispersed Ghost Dance gatherings by force
- Confiscated ghost shirts from Lakota camps
- Arrested suspected Ghost Dance leaders
- Relocated Lakota bands away from their preferred lands
- Increased military presence around Pine Ridge Reservation
These actions didn't calm tensions. They made things worse.
Wounded Knee: The Massacre
On December 29, 1890, the U.S. 7th Cavalry surrounded a band of Lakota Sioux near Wounded Knee Creek in South Dakota. The soldiers had come to confiscate weapons. They were supposed to be escorting the Lakota to a rail station for transfer to another reservation.
During the process, a scuffle broke out. Someone fired a gun—historians still debate who fired first. What happened next was a massacre.
Soldiers opened fire with Hotchkiss guns. They shot people running away. They shot people hiding in ravines. They shot people in tipis. The official count listed 150 Lakota dead, but many historians believe the real number was closer to 300.
Among the dead: dozens of women and children. The soldiers suffered 25 dead and 39 wounded, mostly from their own crossfire.
Aftermath and Legacy
Wounded Knee didn't end the Ghost Dance immediately. Some tribes continued practicing it into the 1890s. But the movement lost its momentum after the massacre.
The U.S. government used Wounded Knee as justification to crack down harder on Native American religious practices. Ceremonies were banned. Children were taken to boarding schools where speaking native languages was forbidden.
Today, the Ghost Dance holds complex meaning for different communities. Some see it as a tragic example of government violence. Others view it as a spiritual movement that showed Native peoples refusing to accept cultural erasure. Some tribes remember it as a warning about the dangers of false prophecy.
Comparing Ghost Dance Across Major Tribes
| Tribe | Adoption Period | Key Adaptation | Government Response |
|---|---|---|---|
| Lakota Sioux | Late 1889–1890 | Ghost shirts, most intense practice | Military occupation, Wounded Knee massacre |
| Northern Cheyenne | 1890 | Integrated with Sun Dance traditions | Arrests of leaders, suppression of ceremonies |
| Arapaho | 1890–1891 | Group dances, adapted songs | Dispersal by military, ban on gatherings |
| Paiute (origin) | 1889 | Original prophecy from Wovoka | Minimal—movement originated here |
| Crow | 1890 | Brief adoption, then rejection | Little direct action |
Why the Ghost Dance Matters Today
The Ghost Dance isn't just historical trivia. It shows what happens when people lose everything and reach for hope—even when that hope is impossible.
It also shows what governments do when they feel threatened by spiritual practices. The U.S. military didn't massacre people at Wounded Knee because they were in danger. They did it because they were afraid of a prophecy.
Native American communities still remember this history. Ghost Dance songs and traditions survive in some form. The movement is taught in schools, though often badly—reduced to a footnote about a "superstition" that led to violence.
The fuller picture is harder to stomach. Starving people on reservations. Children stolen and sent to boarding schools. A spiritual leader offering comfort. And soldiers deciding that comfort was unacceptable.
Getting Started: Understanding Ghost Dance Primary Sources
If you want to dig deeper, start with these materials:
- Wovoka's message — Recorded by James Mooney in 1891. This is the closest thing to a primary source from the prophet himself.
- Mooney's "Ghost Dance Religion" — Published in 1896. Still the most comprehensive study from that era.
- Eyewitness accounts from Wounded Knee — Soldiers' reports and survivor testimonies are available through the National Archives.
- Tribal oral histories — Lakota and Cheyenne communities have their own accounts that differ significantly from official histories.
Be careful with secondary sources. Many repeat the same errors—treating the Ghost Dance as a single, static practice when it varied wildly between tribes. Many frame Wounded Knee as an unfortunate "clash" when it was clearly a massacre.
Read critically. Ask who wrote the source and why. Then decide what you actually believe happened.